Orthography: a set of conventions for writing a language
_$A30B72D6-B10D-40D7-AA2F-EF50E884C26A ! ` $ % & ( a+, :15 ::]isLeftAligned b ! c $ % & ( d : : ]isLeftAligned e x ! f $ % & ( / h i : o s : w]isLeftAligned_({1013.157844543457, -195.41726088523865} 2 j k XpathType 5 6 7 l m#@ _){-0.029000, 0.429000, 0.771000, 1.000000} < = > p r 5 6 7 @ q_({0.071000, 0.529000, 0.871000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F Z u _symbols represent words / morphemes
_$1E1C45FD-C493-4635-A4FA-AF011EDB02ED ! y $ % & ( z : : ]isLeftAligned { ! | $ % & ( / ~ : : ]isLeftAligned_({1154.157844543457, -161.41726088523865} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 #@ _){-0.029000, 0.429000, 0.771000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @ _({0.071000, 0.529000, 0.871000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F Z _Vkanji writing system of Japanese
_$8F385B39-562B-48D2-8D5D-90E2D031CA8F ! $ % & ( / : : ]isLeftAligned_({1154.157844543457, -127.41726088523865} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 _){-0.029000, 0.429000, 0.771000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @ _({0.071000, 0.529000, 0.871000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F Z _Chinese
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_$0AFDDBE0-5A60-45E0-99C7-A4F789A995ED_){838.15784454345703, -161.91726088523865} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 #@ _){-0.029000, 0.429000, 0.771000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @ _({0.071000, 0.529000, 0.871000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F Z _logographic
_$6E0191FD-7731-4009-8F0F-2AEC6D68EC7C ! $ % & ( : : ]isLeftAligned ! $ % & ( / : : ]isLeftAligned_){975.15784454345703, -93.417260885238647} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 l _){-0.029000, 0.429000, 0.771000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @ _({0.071000, 0.529000, 0.871000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F G _ysymbols represent syllables
_$814BE0EE-AB5E-43D0-B747-828FD70010AA ! $ % & ( / : : ]isLeftAligned_){975.15784454345703, -59.417260885238647} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 l _){-0.029000, 0.429000, 0.771000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @ _({0.071000, 0.529000, 0.871000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F Z _example: hiragana and katakana writing system of Japanese
_$2E5DA24D-6031-48CB-A785-188E4BF6BFC8_){838.15784454345703, -76.917260885238647} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 _){-0.029000, 0.429000, 0.771000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @ _({0.071000, 0.529000, 0.871000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F Z _syllabic
_$243EF599-F612-4C8A-B853-CC22CC51C7DB ! $ % & ( :"& :*]isLeftAligned ! $ % & ( / : : ]isLeftAligned_({1000.157844543457, -25.417260885238647} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 l _){-0.029000, 0.429000, 0.771000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @_({0.071000, 0.529000, 0.871000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F Z _symbols roughly represents phonemes
_$FF2E1AED-D872-47FF-9C06-2282314F79F8 ! $ % & ( / : :]isLeftAligned_'{1000.157844543457, 8.5827391147613525} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 l_){-0.029000, 0.429000, 0.771000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @_({0.071000, 0.529000, 0.871000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F Z _example: romaji writing system of Japanese
_$0667644C-070A-43BB-A770-B47095217C55_){838.15784454345703, -8.9172608852386475} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 _){-0.029000, 0.429000, 0.771000, 1.000000} < = > #% 5 6 7 @$_({0.071000, 0.529000, 0.871000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F Z ( _alphabetic
_$139460D2-02A9-4528-AAC0-ED60E98B43C6_){697.15784454345703, -114.91726088523865} 2-. XpathType 5 6 7 8/_){-0.029000, 0.429000, 0.771000, 1.000000} < = > 24 5 6 7 @3_({0.071000, 0.529000, 0.871000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F6 :8#@S _types of writing systems
_$C94843FC-F9EA-48D3-BE57-A68EB23A1330_){337.15784454345703, -139.41726088523865} 2=> XpathType 5 6 7 @?_){-0.029000, 0.429000, 0.771000, 1.000000} < = > BD 5 6 7 @C_({0.071000, 0.529000, 0.871000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F G G _Graphemics/graphematics: study of writing systems
_$1C0BD2A7-1AB0-44B6-975F-F870C38C9EFB !K $ % & (L : :]isLeftAlignedMr !N $ % & (Obc :hl :q]isLeftAlignedP !Q $ % & ( /ST :Y] :a]isLeftAligned_({885.15784454345703, 43.082739114761353} 2UV XpathType 5 6 7 W_({0.071000, 0.529000, 0.871000, 1.000000} < = > Z\ 5 6 7 @[_({0.220000, 0.576000, 0.216000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F G _ o < p s t y l e = ' c o l o r : r g b a ( 5 2 , 7 2 , 8 3 , 1 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 ) ; f o n t : 1 8 p x " H e l v e t i c a N e u e " ; t e x t - a l i g n : l e f t ; - c o c o a - f o n t - p o s t s c r i p t n a m e : " H e l v e t i c a N e u e " ; ' > i n v e s t i g a t e s p h o n e s < / p >_$C0EEAC5F-CA8B-4929-8514-EA5798CBEA54_({469.15784454345703, 42.582739114761353} 2de XpathType 5 6 7 8f_({0.071000, 0.529000, 0.871000, 1.000000} < = > ik 5 6 7 @j_({0.220000, 0.576000, 0.216000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E Fm :o#@v _Zphonetics: physical production of sounds
_$FCBEB196-5D04-46A3-8754-EE78D801A0E3 !s $ % & (t : :]isLeftAlignedu !v $ % & ( /xy :~ :]isLeftAligned_({805.15784454345703, 78.082739114761353} 2z{ XpathType 5 6 7 |_({0.149000, 0.733000, 0.820000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @_({0.220000, 0.576000, 0.216000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F G o < p s t y l e = ' c o l o r : r g b a ( 5 2 , 7 2 , 8 3 , 1 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 ) ; f o n t : 1 8 p x " H e l v e t i c a N e u e " ; t e x t - a l i g n : l e f t ; - c o c o a - f o n t - p o s t s c r i p t n a m e : " H e l v e t i c a N e u e " ; ' > i n v e s t i g a t e s p h o n e m e s < / p >_$2DED484B-5F49-401C-90D6-0B77DD793C60_({469.15784454345703, 77.582739114761353} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 8_({0.149000, 0.733000, 0.820000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @_({0.220000, 0.576000, 0.216000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F G _Pphonology: how sound interacts
_$2CC59F69-3896-467F-864C-5E87777B905A_({337.15784454345703, 49.582739114761353} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 @_({0.120000, 0.476000, 0.116000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @_({0.220000, 0.576000, 0.216000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F :#@Q _(sound related)
_$4D56C39D-79A9-4958-B808-E43C478D8C18 ! # $ % & ( : :]isLeftAligned ! $ % & ( / : :]isLeftAligned_({644.15784454345703, 112.58273911476135} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 8_({0.863000, 0.133000, 0.157000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @_({0.863000, 0.133000, 0.157000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F :#@y0 _grammar: the set of structural rules governing the composition of clauses, phrases, and words.
_$C43F713E-CD10-4EE2-855C-AD6024AEB0E1 F :_visibleOnCanvaso < p s t y l e = ' c o l o r : r g b a ( 8 3 , 8 3 , 8 3 , 1 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 ) ; f o n t : 1 5 p x " V e r d a n a " ; - c o c o a - f o n t - p o s t s c r i p t n a m e : " V e r d a n a " ; ' > r u l e s f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f g r a m m a t i c a l s e n t e n c e s < / p >_({337.15784454345703, 123.58273911476135} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 @_({0.863000, 0.133000, 0.157000, 1.000000}_({0.262539, 0.353807, 0.399882, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @_({0.863000, 0.133000, 0.157000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F G _syntax: study of grammar
_$E21FE654-F9B5-4142-8229-ADA9DB380808 ! # $ % & ( / : :]isLeftAligned F :_study of meaning
_({337.15784454345703, 169.58273911476135} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 @_({0.992000, 0.714000, 0.051000, 1.000000}_({0.262539, 0.353807, 0.399882, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @_({0.992000, 0.714000, 0.051000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F G _semantics: study of meaning
_$61B4318D-A0A1-4128-AF8A-EAD1A62E8A01 ! # $ % & ( / : :]isLeftAligned F :_studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning
_({337.15784454345703, 204.58273911476135} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 @_({0.573000, 0.165000, 0.647000, 1.000000}_({0.262539, 0.353807, 0.399882, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @_({0.573000, 0.165000, 0.647000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F G _pragmatics: study of context
_$8A5A71C9-0E52-426C-BA62-EEA8E36BF6C0 ! $ % & ( : : ]isLeftAligned ! $ % & ( / : :]isLeftAligned_({769.15784454345703, 240.08273911476135} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 8_){-0.029000, 0.429000, 0.771000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @ _({0.071000, 0.529000, 0.871000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F G _(often a college course)
_$6B72FB50-6B3B-4F05-828A-4F87B7596D3C_({337.15784454345703, 239.58273911476135} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 @_){-0.029000, 0.429000, 0.771000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @_({0.071000, 0.529000, 0.871000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F : #@w _historical linguistics: study of development
_$7227823C-CDEB-4F38-A937-4FA9181B8F9A !" $ % & (#ST Y] :b]isLeftAligned$; !% # $ % & ( /'*+ 015 ::]isLeftAligned F :)_http://martinweisser.org/courses/intro/lexico.html
_*{-552.84215545654297, -252.39975541477912} 2,- XpathType 5 6 7 8._({0.220000, 0.576000, 0.216000, 1.000000} _({0.262539, 0.353807, 0.399882, 1.000000} < = > 24 5 6 7 @3_({0.149000, 0.733000, 0.820000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F6 :8#@vP _not to be confused with lexicography: practice of compiling dictionaries
_$457E37A2-34E4-42AC-B413-9D2C59694ECB !< # $ % & (= :]isLeftAligned>P !? $ % & ( /AB GK :O]isLeftAligned_*{-587.84215545654297, -195.39975541477912} 2CD XpathType 5 6 7 E_({0.863000, 0.133000, 0.157000, 1.000000} < = > HJ 5 6 7 @I_({0.149000, 0.733000, 0.820000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F G M o? < p s t y l e = ' t e x t - a l i g n : l e f t ; ' > < s p a n s t y l e = ' c o l o r : r g b a ( 5 1 , 7 1 , 8 2 , 1 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 ) ; f o n t : 1 8 p x " H e l v e t i c a N e u e " ; - c o c o a - f o n t - p o s t s c r i p t n a m e : " H e l v e t i c a N e u e " ; ' > i n v e s t i g a t e s < / s p a n > < s p a n s t y l e = ' c o l o r : r g b a ( 5 2 , 7 2 , 8 3 , 1 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 ) ; f o n t : 1 8 p x " H e l v e t i c a N e u e " ; - c o c o a - f o n t - p o s t s c r i p t n a m e : " H e l v e t i c a N e u e " ; ' > m o r p h e m e < / s p a n > < / p >_$B8C80632-2B55-4CB1-81FB-F1B03C382141 !Q # $ % & (R :]isLeftAlignedSx !T $ % & (Uhi nr :w]isLeftAlignedV !W $ % & ( /YZ _c :g]isLeftAligned_){-1187.842155456543, -150.39975541477912} 2[\ XpathType 5 6 7 ]_({0.863000, 0.133000, 0.157000, 1.000000} < = > `b 5 6 7 @a_({0.149000, 0.733000, 0.820000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F G e o < p s t y l e = ' c o l o r : r g b a ( 5 2 , 7 2 , 8 3 , 1 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 ) ; f o n t : 1 8 p x " H e l v e t i c a N e u e " ; t e x t - a l i g n : l e f t ; - c o c o a - f o n t - p o s t s c r i p t n a m e : " H e l v e t i c a N e u e " ; ' > e x a m p l e : i n t h e c a s e o f h o r s e s , t h e e n d i n g s m a r k s p l u r a l i t y . < / p >_$05823D51-1B2C-452E-963C-E4F38992F199_*{-829.84215545654297, -161.39975541477912} 2jk XpathType 5 6 7 ll_({0.863000, 0.133000, 0.157000, 1.000000} < = > oq 5 6 7 @p_({0.149000, 0.733000, 0.820000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E Fs :u#@q _inflectional morphology: how words vary in their form in order to express a grammatical contrast
_$4C9D6E21-7E97-4472-A7A6-43C84F91A129 !y $ % & (z :]isLeftAligned{ !| $ % & ( /~ :]isLeftAligned_){-1160.842155456543, -61.399755414779122} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 _({0.863000, 0.133000, 0.157000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @_({0.149000, 0.733000, 0.820000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F G _example: electro-magnet-ics
_$83A38C55-2043-4D69-A9D7-C1C7B74582BF_*{-852.84215545654297, -83.399755414779122} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 l_({0.863000, 0.133000, 0.157000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @_({0.149000, 0.733000, 0.820000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F :#@s@ _lexical / derivational morphology: how words can be built up out of combinations of elements
_$CBEE8C4C-8489-4531-9EC2-1291D6F5DDDA F :o < p > < s p a n s t y l e = ' c o l o r : r g b a ( 2 9 , 2 9 , 2 9 , 1 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 ) ; f o n t : 1 7 p x " G e o r g i a " ; - c o c o a - f o n t - p o s t s c r i p t n a m e : " G e o r g i a " ; ' > ( D a v i d C r y s t a l , < / s p a n > < s p a n s t y l e = ' c o l o r : r g b a ( 2 9 , 2 9 , 2 9 , 1 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 ) ; f o n t : i t a l i c 1 7 p x " G e o r g i a " ; - c o c o a - f o n t - p o s t s c r i p t n a m e : " G e o r g i a - I t a l i c " ; ' > T h e C a m b r i d g e E n c y c l o p e d i a o f t h e E n g l i s h L a n g u a g e < / s p a n > < s p a n s t y l e = ' c o l o r : r g b a ( 2 9 , 2 9 , 2 9 , 1 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 ) ; f o n t : 1 7 p x " G e o r g i a " ; - c o c o a - f o n t - p o s t s c r i p t n a m e : " G e o r g i a " ; ' > , 2 n d e d . C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 2 0 0 3 ) < / s p a n > < / p >_*{-482.84215545654297, -100.39975541477912} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 _({0.863000, 0.133000, 0.157000, 1.000000} _({0.262539, 0.353807, 0.399882, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @_({0.149000, 0.733000, 0.820000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F G _subfields
_$3EA6EA73-145E-4C4C-9076-39D125CB80C6 ! $ % & ( :]isLeftAligned ! $ % & ( / :]isLeftAligned_){-827.84215545654297, -5.399755414779122} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 l_({0.863000, 0.133000, 0.157000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @_({0.149000, 0.733000, 0.820000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F G _The analytic approach: top-down
_$959D13CE-F34E-4853-926B-C3AD7888AD37 ! $ % & ( / :]isLeftAligned_){-841.84215545654297, 29.600244585220878} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 l_({0.863000, 0.133000, 0.157000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @_({0.149000, 0.733000, 0.820000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F G _the synthetic approach: bottom-up
_$BA84C967-CC98-4922-8799-723E49782673_({-483.84215545654297, 1.600244585220878} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 _({0.863000, 0.133000, 0.157000, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @_({0.149000, 0.733000, 0.820000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F :#@[ _common approaches
_$86CB3DCC-A907-4975-8D06-6EA9CAA3AE23 ! # $ % & ( / :]isLeftAligned F :_https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/a/21569/22128
_){-612.84215545654297, 64.600244585220878} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 _({0.863000, 0.133000, 0.157000, 1.000000} _({0.262539, 0.353807, 0.399882, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @_({0.149000, 0.733000, 0.820000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F G _winvestigates in synchrony
_$FD157DC5-303D-4DE3-980A-3CB1ADE22610 F :_https://www.thoughtco.com/morphology-words-term-1691407
_*{-311.84215545654297, -76.899755414779122} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 8_({0.863000, 0.133000, 0.157000, 1.000000} _({0.262539, 0.353807, 0.399882, 1.000000} < = > 5 6 7 @ _({0.149000, 0.733000, 0.820000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F :#@] _Hmorphology: word forms
_$8514E149-F5D5-4D04-BA0B-38200E77DE91 ! $ % & (CD IM :R]isLeftAligned* ! # $ % & ( / !% :)]isLeftAligned F :_https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/a/21569/22128
_){-581.84215545654297, 98.600244585220878} 2 XpathType 5 6 7 _({0.573000, 0.165000, 0.647000, 1.000000} _({0.257891, 0.349547, 0.395768, 1.000000} < = > "$ 5 6 7 @#_({0.149000, 0.733000, 0.820000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F G ' _winvestigates in diachrony
_$539C18F6-CEFB-4765-95AF-4EF4103F7607 !+, $ % & ( /./3 :> :BZattachment]isLeftAligned_){-646.84215545654297, 132.60024458522088} 201 XpathType 5 6 7 2_({0.573000, 0.165000, 0.647000, 1.000000}456 78TtypeXfileNameTsize_(86668FF3-7517-4902-88EB-C6983B07209C.png_{300, 87.964989059080963} < = > ;= 5 6 7 @<_({0.149000, 0.733000, 0.820000, 1.000000}_({1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000, 1.000000} D E F G @ _example
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